October 21, 2025
A new preprint study titled Electric Vehicles as Grid Resources: Barriers to Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) in the United States, authored by researchers from the University of Colorado Denver and North Carolina State University, offers one of the most comprehensive examinations to date of why V2G adoption remains limited in the U.S.[1] Although still under peer review, the paper provides valuable insights for utilities, policymakers, and technology developers seeking to accelerate bidirectional charging deployment.
Purpose of the Study & Methods
The research team set out to understand the socio-technical and institutional barriers slowing the integration of vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technologies. Despite two decades of technical feasibility demonstrations, V2G participation remains confined to small pilots. The authors note that the U.S. lacks market frameworks that properly value and compensate the energy and grid services EVs can provide. Their goal was to identify what’s holding the industry back, and how different stakeholder groups perceive the challenges.
To capture a broad range of perspectives, the researchers conducted 33 in-depth interviews with 42 participants across utilities, automakers, school districts, government agencies, and V2G pilot operators.
A distinctive feature of the study is its use of the Extended Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT2) framework, a behavioral model that explains why individuals and organizations adopt, or resist, new technologies. UTAUT2 was adapted here to interpret institutional decision-making around V2G. The framework organizes factors influencing adoption into five constructs:
- Facilitating conditions – the technical, regulatory, and market infrastructure supporting V2G use.
- Effort expectancy – the perceived ease of understanding, operating, and integrating V2G into existing systems.
- Performance expectancy – expectations about how useful or beneficial the technology will be.
- Price value – whether the benefits outweigh the costs.
- Social influence – the effect of cultural norms and peer or political pressures on adoption decisions.
By applying UTAUT2 to qualitative data, the authors shifted attention from purely technical feasibility to organizational readiness, stakeholder alignment, and perceived value creation, a novel approach for V2G research. Interview transcripts were systematically coded and analyzed using NVivo software to identify recurring patterns across stakeholder groups.
Key Findings
Two constructs dominated the findings: facilitating conditions and effort expectancy. Stakeholders consistently cited a lack of infrastructure readiness, missing interoperability standards, and limited awareness of how V2G works as primary obstacles. Utilities and OEMs also pointed to inconsistent interconnection processes and unclear equipment certifications as major hurdles to scaling.
Many participants expressed uncertainty about V2G’s economic value proposition. High upfront equipment costs, limited financial incentives, and concerns about battery degradation continue to dampen enthusiasm. Utilities noted the “chicken-and-egg” dilemma, hesitant to invest in enabling infrastructure until more V2G-capable vehicles are on the road, while automakers remain cautious until utilities create clear market opportunities.
Social and political attitudes were found to play a smaller but still relevant role. In several regions, electrification remains a politically charged topic, influencing how local governments and utilities frame their EV and V2G programs.
Limitations
As the authors note, this qualitative study focuses on institutional and expert perspectives rather than end consumers, meaning household-level motivations and behavioral insights are not directly captured. Additionally, since it relies on a relatively small interview sample, findings should be viewed as exploratory rather than statistically representative. Finally, as a preprint under peer review, the results and interpretations may evolve through the review process.
Why It Matters
While the study highlights familiar challenges, including interconnection delays, cost barriers, and standardization gaps, it also underscores the growing recognition that V2G is as much a socio-institutional challenge as a technical one. By grounding the analysis in real-world stakeholder experience, the research provides a roadmap that can help each part of the V2G ecosystem take more strategic action:
- For utilities: the findings point to the need for pilot designs aligned with planning timelines, ensuring utilities can collect operational data that informs rate design and grid-service valuation. Utilities can also establish streamlined interconnection and metering pathways modeled on distributed storage programs, reducing transaction costs for early projects.
- For regulators and policymakers: the study supports a call for coordinated rulemaking that treats bidirectional EVs as eligible distributed energy resources. This includes updating interconnection standards, time-varying tariffs, and storage incentive programs to explicitly include V2G. Regulators can also require utilities to account for V2G potential in distribution system planning and hosting-capacity analyses.
- For automakers and charging manufacturers: the interviews underscore the importance of clear warranty policies and transparent battery data to build trust among utilities and consumers. Aligning on interoperability standards and publishing open API frameworks can help move beyond the proprietary “walled-garden” approach that currently limits V2G scale.
- For local and fleet operators: the research suggests using early deployments, such as school bus and municipal fleet pilots, to develop replicable procurement and permitting templates. Municipalities can also invest in community education and position V2G as a resilience strategy rather than just a cost-saving tool.
Ultimately, the study reinforces that V2G progress will hinge on institutional coordination and policy alignment, not just hardware innovation. By applying these insights, stakeholders can turn fragmented pilot activity into a coherent strategy for scaling bidirectional charging across the U.S.
[1]Soderman, Crystal and Kim, Serena and Kim, Serena and Yip, Jen and Shirgaokar, Manish, Electric Vehicles as Grid Resources: Barriers to Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) in the United States. Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5459874 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5459874.
